Aging is characterized by a progressive loss of physiological integrity, leading to impaired function and increased vulnerability to death. This deterioration is the primary risk factor for major human pathologies, including cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular disorders, and neurodegenerative diseases. Aging research has experienced an unprecedented advance over recent years, particularly with the discovery that the rate of aging is controlled, at least to some extent, by genetic pathways and biochemical processes conserved in evolution. This Review enumerates nine tentative hallmarks that represent common denominators of aging in different organisms, with special emphasis on mammalian aging. These hallmarks are: genomic instability, telomere attrition, epigenetic alterations, loss of proteostasis, deregulated nutrient sensing, mitochondrial dysfunction, cellular senescence, stem cell exhaustion, and altered intercellular communication. A major challenge is to dissect the interconnectedness between the candidate hallmarks and their relative contributions to aging, with the final goal of identifying pharmaceutical targets to improve human health during aging, with minimal side effects.
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The Sin
Heinrich Lossow 1843 – 1897
“She wanted to be the handsomest girl in the world.”
Conte and pastel on paper
40 x 60 cm
By Guy Denning
19:33
June 15, 1888: Wilhelm II becomes German Emperor and King of Prussia.
On June 15, 1888, Wilhelm II succeeded his father Frederick III, whose rule lasted under 100 days, as Kaiser of the German Empire and King of Prussia. A grandchild of Queen Victoria and cousin to both Tsar Nicholas II and George V of Britain, Wilhelm was twenty-nine when his rule began, and fifty-nine when it ended at the close of World War I. One of his first significant acts as emperor was to dismiss Otto von Bismarck as chancellor and replace him with Leo von Caprivi, who was himself replaced by Chlodwig, Prince of Hohenloe, who was finally replaced by Bernhard von Bülow. As a leader, Wilhelm is generally regarded as impulsive and volatile, especially with regard to foreign policy - his well-publicized blunders alienated Great Britain, France, and other nations, as did Germany’s increased efforts to build and strengthen its overseas empire. And, despite his forceful personality, he was also reportedly easily influenced by his ministers and generals.
One goal which he pursued tirelessly was the expansion of the Imperial German Navy, which was to rival the British Royal Navy and help Germany become an indisputable military power. His attitude toward Britain (the country of his more liberal mother) was mixed and supposedly shifted back and forth between admiration and resentment. Although the Treaty of Versailles placed much of the blame for the outbreak of the war on Germany (and therefore on Wilhelm), more recent assessments have cast Wilhelm as less an instigator than an accomplice, guilty nonetheless, whose agenda and lack of tact fostered unstable conditions that eventually gave rise to world war.







